Undressing the Words: Prevalence of Profanity, Misogyny, Violence, and Gender Role References in Popular Music from 2006-2016

CYNTHIA M. FRISBY & ELIZABETH BEHM-MORAWITZ
University of Missouri, Columbia

Abstract
Are degrading sexual references more prevalent than non-degrading references in music popular with adolescents? The purpose of this study was to perform a content analysis of contemporary popular music with particular attention paid to the prevalence of violent, misogynistic, profane, and/or demeaning colloquial references. Billboard magazine was used to identify the top popular songs appearing on top music charts from 2006 through 2016. Data show songs with justified violence themes were most commonly found in hip-hop music, whereas songs with unjustified message themes were most often found in Pop music. The present study suggests that pop and hip-hop/rap music, genres popular with most adolescents today, use frequent references involving profanity, violence, and misogynistic themes.

Keywords: Misogyny, body image, ethnicity, gender, objectification, music lyrics, violence against women

References

Armstrong, E. G. (1993). The rhetoric of violence in rap and country music. Sociological Inquiry, 63, 64-83.
Aubrey, J. S. (2006). Effects of sexually objectifying media on self-objectification and body surveillance in undergraduates: Results of a two-year panel study. Journal of Communication, 56, 366-386.
Aubrey, J. S., & Frisby, C. (2011). Sexual objectification in music videos: A content analysis comparing gender and genre. Mass Communication and Society, 14, 475-501.
Ballard, M. E., & Coates, S. (1995). The immediate effects of homicidal, suicidal, and nonviolent heavy metal and rap songs on the moods of college students. Youth and Society, 27, 148-168
Binder, A. (1993). Constructing racial rhetoric: Media depictions of harm in heavy metal and rap music. American Sociological Review, 58(6), 753-767.
Bussey, K., & Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106, 676–713.
Christenson, P. G., & Roberts, D.F. (1990). Adolescents on Popular Music in Early Adolescence. Washington, DC: Carnegie Council Medicine.
Dixon, T. L., & Linz, D. (1997). Obscenity law and sexually explicit rap music: Understanding the effects of sex, attitudes, and beliefs. Journal of Applied Communication Research, 25(3), 217-241.
Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T-A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward an understanding of women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21, 173-206.
Freudiger, P. &Almquist, E. M. (1978). Male and Female Roles in the Lyrics of Three Genres of Contemporary Music. Sex Roles, 4, 51-63.
Frisby, C., & Aubrey, J. S. (2012). Race and genre in the use of sexual objectification in female artists’ music videos. Howard Journal of Communications, 23, 66-87.
Gow, J. (1993). Gender roles in popular music videos: MTV’s “top 100 of all time. Paper presented at the 1993 Popular Culture Association/American Culture Association Convention; New Orleans.
Greenfield, P. M., Bruzzone, L., &Koyamatsu, K. (1987). What is rock music doing to the minds of our youth? A first experimental look at the effects of rock music lyrics and music videos, Journal of Early Adolescence, 7, 315-329.
Hall, P. C., West, J. H., & Hill, S. (2012). Sexualization in lyrics of popular music from 1959-2009: Implications for sexuality educators. Sexuality & Culture, 16, 103-117.
Hansen, C. H. & Hansen, R. D. (1991). Schematic information: Processing of heavy metal lyrics. Communication Research, 18, 373-411.
Henderson, E. A. (1996). Black nationalism and rap music. Journal of Black Studies, 26, 308-339.
iTunes Music Store. 2009, October 8. Johnson, J. D., Adams, M. S., Ashburn, L. & Reed, W. (1995). Differential gender effects of exposure to rap music on African American adolescents’ acceptance of teen dating violence. Sex Roles, 33(7-8), 597-605.
Johnson, J. D., Jackson, L. A., & Gatto, L. (1995). Violent attitudes and deferred academic aspirations: Deleterious effects of exposure to rap music. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 16, 27-41.
Kaye B.K., Sapolsky, B.S. (2004a). Talking a ‘‘blue’’ streak: context and offensive language in prime-time network television programs. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 81, 911–927.
Kaye B. K., & Sapolsky, B.S. (2004b). Offensive language in prime-time television: Four years after television age and content ratings. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 48, 554–569.
Klein, J. D., Brown, J. D., Childers, K.W., Olivieri, J., & Porter C. (2009). Impact of music, music lyrics, and music videos on children and youth. Pediatrics, 124, 1488-1494.
Krippendorff, K. (2011). “Computing Krippendorff’s alpha-reliability.” Philadelphia: Annenberg School for Communication Departmental Papers.
Krippendorff, K. (2004b) Reliability in content analysis: Some common misconceptions and recommendations. Human Communication Research, 30, 411-433.
Lynxwiler, J. & Gay, D. (2000). Moral boundaries and deviant music: Public attitudes toward heavy metal and rap. Deviant Behavior, 21, 63-85.
Lyrics-database.org. 2009, October 23.
Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., Elliott, M. N., Strachman, A., Kanouse, D. E., &Berry,S. A. (2006). Exposure to degrading versus nondegrading music lyrics and sexual behavior among youth. Pediatrics, 118, 430-441.
McLeod, D., Evelant, W., & Nathanson, A. (1997). Support for censorship of violent and misogynic rap lyrics. Communication Research, 24, 153-174
Pardun, C. J., L’Engle, K. L., & Brown, J. D. (2005). Linking exposure to outcomes: Early adolescents’ consumption of sexual content in six media. Mass Communication & Society, 8(2), 75-91.
Pinn, A. B. (1996). “Gettin’ Grown’: Notes on gangsta rap music and notions of manhood. Journal of African American Men, 2, 61-73.
Powell, C. T. (1991). Rap music: An education with a beat from the street. Journal of Negro Education, 60, 245-259.
Primack, B. A., Gold, M. A., Schwarz, M. D., & Dalton, M. A., (2008). Degrading and non-degrading sex in popular music: A content analysis. Public Health Reports, 123(5), 593-600.
Rideout, V., Roberts, D., & Foehr, U. (2005). Generation M: media in the lives of 8–18 year-olds. Menlo Park, CA: Kaiser Family Foundation.
Rose, T. (1994). Black noise: Rap music and black culture in contemporary America. Hanover, NH: Wesleyan University Press: Published by University Press of New England.
Rudman, L. & Lee, M. (2002). Implicit and explicit consequences of exposure to violent and misogynous rap music. Group Processes and Intergroup Relations, 5, 133-150.
Smith, S. L. (2005). From Dr. Dre to Dismissed: Assessing violence, sex, and substance use on MTV. Critical Studies in Media Communication, 22, 89-98.
Smith, S. L. & Boyson, A. R. (2002). Violence in music videos: Examining the prevalence and context of physical aggression. Journal of Communication, 64, 61-83.
Steinke, J., Lapinski, M., Zietsman-Thomas, A., Nwulu, P., Crocker, N., Williams, Y., et al. (2007). Middle school-aged children’s attitudes toward women in science, engineering and technology and the effects of media literacy training. Journal of Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 12(4), 295-323.
Tervo, J. (2001). Music therapy for adolescents. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 6, 79-91.
Watts, E. K. (1997). An exploration of spectacular consumption: Gangsta rap as cultural commodity. Communication Studies, 48(1), 42-58.
Weitzer, R., &Kubrin, C. E. (2009). Misogyny in rap music: A content analysis of prevalence and meanings. Men and Masculinities, 12, 3-29.
Wester, S. R., Crown, C. L., Quatman, G. L. & Heesacker, M. (1997). The influence of sexually violent rap music on attitudes of men with little prior exposure. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(4), 497-508.
Wingood, G., DiClemente, R. J., Bernhardt, J. M., Harrington, K., Davies, S. L., Robillard, & Hook, E. W. (2003). A prospective study of exposure to rap music videos and African American female adolescent’s health. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 269-286.

Cynthia Frisby (Ph.D., University of Florida, 1997) is a full Professor at the Missouri School of Journalism. Her research program focuses on assessing how media images and messages influence viewer affect, perceptions, attitudes, information processing, and consumer behavior. Dr. Frisby’s main focus is to understand the wants, desires, thoughts, concerns, motivating forces, and ideas of the consumer.

Elizabeth Behm-Morawitz (Ph.D., University of Arizona, 2007) is an Associate Professor in the Department of Communication at the University of Missouri. Her research program examines how media representations of gender, race, ethnicity, and sexuality influence stereotyping, self-concept, and health. Much of her work examines these issues in entertainment and experiential media contexts.